TMI Blog1962 (1) TMI 66X X X X Extracts X X X X X X X X Extracts X X X X ..... ns. The Dawoodi Bohra Community consist of Muslims of the Shia sect, holding in common with all members of that sect the belief that there is one God, that Mohammed is His Prophet to whom He revealed the Holy Koran; that Ali, the son-in-law of Mohammed, was the Wasi (executor) of the Prophet, and that the said Ali succeeded the Prophet by Nas-e-Jali. The Dawoodi Bohras believe that the said Ali was succeeded by a line of Imams, each of whom in turn was appointed by Nas- e-Jali by his immediate predecessor. The Shia sect itself became divided into two sub-sects, known respectively as Ismailis and Isna Asharia. The Dawoodi Bohras belong to the former sect, and believe that owing to persecution Imam Type (the 21st Imam) went into seclusion and that an Iman from his line appear, it being their belief that an Iman always exists although at times he may be invisible to his believers, while in seclusion; that owing to the impending seclusion of the 21st Imam (Imam Tyeb) his predecessor, the 20th Imam, directed his Hujjat (a dignitary ranking next to an Imam), one Hurra-tul-Malaka, to appoint a Dai, a Mazoon (a dignitary next to a Dai) and a Mukasir (a dignitary ranking next to a Mazoon) t ..... X X X X Extracts X X X X X X X X Extracts X X X X ..... of the Constitution; the said right of the petitioner to excommunicate a member of the community, for reasons of which the petitioner is the sole judge in the exercise of his position as the religious head, is a guaranteed right under Arts. 25 and 26 of the Constitution. The Bombay Legislature enacted the Act, which came into force on November 1, 1949. The petitioner asserts that the Act violates his right and power, as Dai-ul-Mutlaq and religious leader of the Dawoodi Bohra community, to excommunicate such members of the community as he may think fit and proper to do; the said right of excommunication and the exercise of that right by the petitioner in the manner aforesaid are matters of religion within the meaning of Art. 26(b) of the Constitution. It is submitted by the petitioner that the said Act violates or infringes both the Arts. 25 and 26 of the Constitution, and to that extent, after the coming into force of the Constitution, has become void under Art. 13 of the Constitution. The petitioner claims that notwithstanding the provisions of the Act, he, as the religious leader and Dai-ul-Mutlaq of the community, is entitled to excommunicate any member of the Dawoodi Bohra ..... X X X X Extracts X X X X X X X X Extracts X X X X ..... ts public character, to forbear from enforcing the provisions of the Act against the petitioner. By the petitioner's attorney's letter, annexure B to the petition, dated July 18, 1958, the petitioner pointed out to the respondent the unconstitutionality of the Act and requested the latter to desist from enforcing the provisions of the Act against the petitioner or against the Dawoodi Bohra community. In the premises, a writ of Mandamus or a writ in the nature of Mandamus or other appropriate writ, direction or order under Art. 32 of the Constitution was prayed for against the respondent restraining it, its officers, servants and agents from enforcing the provisions of the Act. The answer of the State of Bombay, the sole respondent, is contained in the affidavit sworn to by Shri V.N. Kalghatgi, Assistant Secretary to the Government of Bombay, Home Department, to the effect that the petitioner not having taken any proceedings to excommunicate any member of the community had no cause of action or right to institute the proceedings under Art. 32 of the Constitution; that it was not admitted that the Dai-ul-Mutlaq, as the head of the community, has civil powers, including the ..... X X X X Extracts X X X X X X X X Extracts X X X X ..... troversy arose as regards the propriety and validity of the appointment of the 47th Dia-ul-Mutlaq, which controversy continued all along until the present time so that opinion is divided amongst the members of the Dawoodi Bohra community as to the validity of appointments and existence of Dai-ul-Mutlaq, from the 47th to the 51st Dai-ul-Mutlaq, including the present petitioner. The intervener also alleged that but for the impugned Act, the petitioner would have lost no time in excommunicating him. In the premises, he claims that he is not only a proper but necessary party to the writ Petition. He, therefore, prayed to be added as a party- respondent, or, at any rate, granted leave to intervene at the hearing of the Writ Petition. We have to dispose of this petition because no orders have been passed until the hearing of the main case before us. In answer to the petitioner's claims, the intervener has raised the following grounds, namely, that the Holy Koran does not permit excommunication, which is against the spirit of Islam; that, in any event, the Dai-ul- Mutlaq had no right or power to excommunicate any member of the community, and alternatively, that such a right, assuming ..... X X X X Extracts X X X X X X X X Extracts X X X X ..... mbers. It was, therefore, claimed that the practice of excommunication was, and is, an essential and integral part of the religion and religious belief, faith and tenets of Dawoodi Bohra community, which have been guaranteed by Art. 26 of the Constitution. It has been urged on behalf of the petitioner, in support of the petition, that the Dawoodi Bohra community, of which the petitioner is the religious head, as also a trustee in respect of the property belonging to the community, is a religious denomination within the meaning of Art. 26 of the Constitution; that as such a religious denomination it is entitled to ensure its continuity by maintaining the bond of religious unity and discipline, which would secure the continued acceptance by its adherents of certain essential tenets, doctrines and practices; the right to such continuity involves the right to enforce discipline, if necessary by taking the extreme step of excommunication; that the petitioner as the religious head of the denomination is invested with certain powers, including the right to excommunicate dissidents, which power is a matter of religion within the meaning of Art. 26(b) of the Constitution that the impugne ..... X X X X Extracts X X X X X X X X Extracts X X X X ..... d because it was a matter of reform in the interest of public welfare. It was also argued that there was no evidence on the record to show, that excommunication was an essential matter of religion. The right to worship at a particular place or the right of burial in a particular burial ground were questions of civil nature, a dispute in respect of which was within the cognizance of the Civil Courts. The legislation in question, in its real aspects, was a matter of social welfare and social reform and not within the prohibitions of Art. 25(1) or Art. 26. Excommunication involving deprivation of rights of worship or burial and the like were not matters of religion within the meaning of Art. 26(b), and finally, Art. 26(b) was controlled by Art. 25(2) (b) of the Constitution, and, therefore, even if excommunication touched certain religious matters, the Act, insofar as it had abolished it, was in consonance with modern notions of human dignity and individual liberty of action even in matters of religious opinion and faith and practice. Shri Shroff, appearing for the intervener, attempted to reopen the question whether the petitioner as Dai-ul-Mutlaq, assuming that he had been pro ..... X X X X Extracts X X X X X X X X Extracts X X X X ..... finition makes it clear that the rights and privileges within the meaning of the definition include the right to office or property or to worship in any religious place or a right of burial or cremation, notwithstanding the fact that the determination of such right depends entirely on the decision of the question as to any religious rites or ceremonies or rule or usage of a community. By s. 3, excommunication of a member of a community has been declared to be invalid and of no effect, notwithstanding any law, custom or usage to the contrary. Any act of excommunication, or any act in furtherance of excommunication, of any member of a community has been made a penal offence liable to a punishment, on conviction, of fine which may extend to one thousand rupees. The explanation has made it clear that any person who has voted in favour of a decision of excommunication at a meeting of a body or an association of a particular denomination is deemed to have committed the offence made punishable by s. 4, as aforesaid. Sections 5 and 6 lay down the procedure for the trial of an offence under the Act, the limit of time within which the prosecution must be launched and the necessity of previou ..... X X X X Extracts X X X X X X X X Extracts X X X X ..... before us, and, therefore, no particular argument was addressed to us to show that the legislation in question could not be within the purview of Entries 1 2 of List III aforesaid. What was seriously challenged before us was the constitutionality of the Act, in the light of the Constitution with particular reference to Arts. 25 26, and I shall presently deal with that aspect of the controversy. But before I do that, it is convenient to set out the background of the litigation culminating in the present proceedings. The first reported case in relation to some aspects of Shia Imami Ismailis is that of the Advocate General ex relation Dave Muhammad v. Muhammad v. Husen Huseni (1). That was a suit commenced before the coming into existence of the Bombay High Court, on the Equity Side of the late Supreme Court, instituted by an information and bill, filed by the relators and plaintiffs, representing a minority of the Khoja community, against the defendants representing the majority of that community. The prayer in the action was that an account be taken of all property belonging to or held in trust for the Khoja community of Bombay in the hands of the treasurer and the accountant ..... X X X X Extracts X X X X X X X X Extracts X X X X ..... directly in controversy. The petitioner was the first defendant in that action, which had been commenced in October, 1925, and was decided by the judgment of the Subordinate Judge of Burhanpur, dated January 2, 1931. That decision was reversed by the Judicial Commissioner of Central Provinces Berar (later the High Court at Nagpur) by his judgment dated October 25, 1934. That judgment was taken on appeal to the Privy Council and the judgment of the Privy Council very succinctly traces the history of the Dawoodi Bohra community until we come to the 51st Dai, who was the first defendant in that action, and is the petitioner before us. In that case, certain orders of excommunication were under challenge. As a result of those orders of excommunication, the plaintiffs had been obstructed in, and prevented from, entering the property in suit for the purposes of worship, burial and resting in the rest house. In that case, their Lordships did not uphold the claim of the Dai-ul-Mutlaq that he had unrestricted power of excommunication, though they found that he could be regarded as Dai-ul-Mutlaq. As regards the power to excommunicate, it was held that though the power was there, it was not ..... X X X X Extracts X X X X X X X X Extracts X X X X ..... he appeal in this Court had abated by reason of the fact that the plaintiff had died and the cause of action being personal to him was also dead. The Order of this Court dismissing the appeal as not maintainable is dated November 27, 1957. This Writ Petition was filed on August 18, 1958 by the petitioner as the 51st Dai-ul-Mutlaq and head of the Dawoodi Bohra community, for a declaration that the Act was void so far as the petitioner and the Dawoodi Bohra community were concerned, and that a writ of mandamus or a writ in the nature of mandamus or other appropriate write direction or order under Art. 32 of the Constitution be issued restraining the respondent, its officers, servants and agents from enforcing the provisions of the Act, against the petitioner or the Dawoodi Bohra community, or in any manner interfering with the right of the petitioner, as the religious leader and Dai-ul-Mutlaq of the Dawoodi Bohra community, to excommunicate any member of the community for an offence which the petitioner, in the exercise of his religious sense as the religious head of the community may determine as justifying such as expulsion. It is not disputed that the petitioner is the head ..... X X X X Extracts X X X X X X X X Extracts X X X X ..... edom of conscience. The question naturally arises: Can an individual be compelled to have a particular belief on pain of a penalty, like excommunication? One is entitled to believe or not to believe a particular tenet or to follow or not to follow a particular practice in the matters of religion. No one can, therefore, be compelled, against his own judgment and belief, to hold any particular creed or follow a set of religious practices. The Constitution has left every person free in the matter of his relation to his Creator, if he believes in one. It is, thus, clear that a person is left completely free to worship God according to the dictates of his conscience, and that his right to worship as he pleased is unfettered so long as it does not come into conflict with any restraints, as aforesaid, imposed by the State in the interest of public order, etc. A person is not liable to answer for the verity of his religious views, and he cannot be questioned as to his religious beliefs, by the State or by any other person. Thus, though his religious beliefs are entirely his own and his freedom to hold those beliefs is absolute, he has not the absolute right to act in any way he pleased in ..... X X X X Extracts X X X X X X X X Extracts X X X X ..... ous Endowments, Madras v. Sri Lakshmindra Thirtha Swamiar of Sri Shirur Mutt) (1): A religion may not only lay down a code of ethical rules for its followers to accept, it might prescribe rituals and observances, ceremonies and modes of worship which are regarded as integral parts of religion, and these forms and observances might extent even to matters of food and dress. The guarantee under our Constitution not only protects the freedom of religious opinion but it protects also acts done in pursuance of a religion and this is made clear by the use of the expression 'practice of religion' in Article 25. On the strength of those observations, it is contended on behalf of the petitioner that this practice of ex-communication is a part of the religion of the community with which we are concerned in the present controversy, Art. 26, in no uncertain terms, has guaranteed the right to every religious denomination or a section thereof to manage its own affairs in matters of religion (Art. 26(b)). Now what are matters of religion and what are not is not an easy question to decide. It must vary in each individual case according to the tenets of the religious denomin ..... X X X X Extracts X X X X X X X X Extracts X X X X ..... igious community, etc., etc. We have therefore, to draw a line of demarcation between practices consisting of rites and ceremonies connected with the particular kind of worship, which is the tenet of the religious community, and practices in other matters which may touch the religious institutions at several points, but which are not intimately concerned with rites and ceremonies the performance of which is an essential part of the religion. In this connection, the following observations of this Court in The Durgah Committee, Ajmer v. Syed Hussain Ali (1) which were made with reference to the earlier decisions of this Court in The Commissioner, Hindu Religious Endowments, Madras v. Sri Lakshmindra Thirtha Swamiar of Sri Shirur Mutt (2) and in Sri Venkataramana Devaru v. The State of Mysore (3), that matters of religion in Art. 26(b) include even practices which are regarded by the community as part of its religion, may be noted: Whilst we are dealing with this point it may not be out of place incidentally to strike a note of caution and observe that in order that the practices in question should be treated as a part of religion they must be regarded by the said religion as i ..... X X X X Extracts X X X X X X X X Extracts X X X X ..... enquired into the regularity of the proceedings resulting in the excommunication challenged in that case, and they held that the plaintiff had not been validly expelled. It cannot, therefore, be asserted that the Privy Council held the matter of excommunication as a purely religious one. If it were so, the Courts would be out of the controversy. The same argument was advanced in another form by contending that excommunication is not a social question and that, therefore, Art. 25(2)(b) could not be invoked in aid of holding the Act to be constitutional. In this connection, it has to be borne in mind that the Dai-ul-Mutlaq is not only the head of the religious community but also the trustee of the property of the community in which the community as a whole is interested. Even a theological head has got to perform acts which are not wholly religious but may be said to be quasi religious or matters which are connected with religious practices, though not purely religious. Actions of the Dai-ul-Mutlaq in the purely religious aspect are not a concern of the courts, but his actions touching the civil rights of the members of the community are justiciable and not outside the pale of in ..... X X X X Extracts X X X X X X X X Extracts X X X X ..... are not there, based on a priori reasoning as to the probable intention of the Legislature. Such intention can be gathered only from the words actually used in the statute; and in a Court of law, what is unexpressed has the same value as what is unintended. We must therefore hold that denominational institutions are within Art. 25(2)(b). In that case also, as in the present case, reference was made to the earlier decision of this Court in The Commissioner, Hindu Religious endowments, Madras v. Sri Lakshmindra Thirtha Swamiar of Sri Shirur Mutt (1), but the latter decision had explained the legal position with reference to the earlier decision, and after examining the arguments for and against the proposition at pages 916-918, it has been distinctly laid down that Art. 26 (b) must be read subject to Art. 25 (2) (b) of the Constitution. It has further been contended that a person who has been excommunicated as a result of his non-conformity to religious practices is not entitled to use the communal mosque or the communal burial ground or other communal property, thus showing that for all practical purposes he was no more to be treated as a member of the community, and is ..... X X X X Extracts X X X X X X X X Extracts X X X X ..... as not competent to legislate on the subject, or that it infringes any of the provisions of the Constitution. This petition must, therefore, fail. DAS GUPTA, J.- In our opinion this petition should succeed. The petitioner is the head of the Dawoodi Bohras who form one of the several sub-sects of the Shia sect of Musalmans. Dawoodi Bohras believe that, since the 21st Imam went to seclusion, the rights, power and authority of the Imam have been rightfully exercised by the Dai-ul-Imam as the vice-regent of the Imam in seclusion. One of such rights is the exercise of disciplinary powers including the right to excommunicate any member of the Dawoodi Bohra community. The existence of such a right in the Dai-ul-Mutlaq who is for the sake of convenience often mentioned as the Dai was questioned before the courts in a case which went up to the Privy Council. But since the decision of the Privy Council in that case, viz., Hasanali v. Mansoorali (1) that question may be taken to have been finally settled, and it is no longer open to dispute that the Dai, as the head of the Dawoodi Bohra community has the right to excommunicate any member of the community. The claim of the present petit ..... X X X X Extracts X X X X X X X X Extracts X X X X ..... he legislation wholly destroys his right of excommunicating any member of the Dawoodi Bohra community, the Dai has presented this petition under Art. 32 of the Constitution. He contends that the Act violates the fundamental right of the Dawoodi Bohras, including himself, freely to practise religion according to their own faith and practice-a right guaranteed by Art. 25 of the Constitution, and further that it violates the right of the Dawoodi Bohra community to manage its own affairs in matters of religion guaranteed by Art. 26. Therefore, says he, the Act is void and prays for a declaration that the Act is void and the issue of an appropriate writ restraining the respondent, the State of Bombay, its officers, servants and agents from enforcing the provisions of the Act against the petitioner and/or any other member of the Dawoodi Bohra community. It may be mentioned that in the petition the legislative competence of the Bombay legislature to enact the Bombay Prevention of excommunication 1949 was also challenged. This, however was not pressed at the time of the hearing. The respondent contends that neither the right guaranteed under Art. 25 nor that under Art. 26(b) is c ..... X X X X Extracts X X X X X X X X Extracts X X X X ..... and (ii) Has it interfered with the right of the Dawoodi Bohra Community to manage its own affairs in matters of religion; it is necessary to examine first the place of excommunication in the life of a religious community. Much valuable information about this is furnished by an article in the Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences from the pen of Prof. Hazeltine. Excommunication , says Prof. Hazeltine, in one or another of the several different meanings of the term has always and in all civilizations been one of the principal means of maintaining discipline within religious organizations and hence of preserving and strengthening their solidarity. Druids in old Britain are said to have claimed the power to exclude offenders from sacrifice. The early Chiristian Church exercised this power very largely and expelled and excluded from the Christian association, those members who proved to be unworthy of its aims or infringed its rules of governance. During the middle ages the Pope used this power frequently to secure the observance of what was considered the proper religious rights and practices of Christianity by excommunicating even the kings of some European countries when they intr ..... X X X X Extracts X X X X X X X X Extracts X X X X ..... rical reason for this extraordinary position of the Dai as it does not appear to be seriously disputed that the Dai is considered to be the vice-regent of Imam so long as the rightful Imam continues in seclusion. Mention must be made in this connection of the Mishak which every Dawoodi Bohra takes at the time of his initiation, This includes among other things, an oath of unquestioning faith in and loyalty to the Dai. It is urged therefore that faith in the existence of the disciplinary power of the Dai including his power to excommunicate forms one of the religious tenets of this community. The argument that Art. 25 has been contravened by the impugned Act is based mainly on this contention and the further contention that in any case excommunication is a religious practice in this community. As regards Art. 26(b) the argument is that excommunication among the Dawoodi Bohras forms such an integral part of the management of the community by the religious head that interference with that right cannot but amount to an interference with the right of the community to the manage its own affairs in matters of religion. Let us consider first whether the impugned Act contrave ..... X X X X Extracts X X X X X X X X Extracts X X X X ..... gious community to manage its own affairs in matters of religion. The fact that civil rights of a person are affected by the exercise of this fundamental right under Art. 26(b) is therefore of no consequence. Nor is it possible to say that excommunication is prejudicial to public order, morality and health. Though there was a statement in paragraph 10 of the respondent's counter affidavit that the religious practice, which runs counter to the public order, morality and health must give way before the good of the people of the State , the learned Attorney-General did not advance any argument in support of this plea. It remains to consider whether the impugned Act comes within the saving provisions embodied in cl. 2 of Art. 25. The clause is in these words:- Nothing in this Article shall affect the operation of any existing law or prevent the State from making any law- (a) regulating or restricting any economic, financial, political or other secular activity which may be associated with religious practice; (b) providing for social welfare and reform or the throwing open of Hindu religious institutions of a public character to all classes and sections of Hind ..... X X X X Extracts X X X X X X X X Extracts X X X X ..... ute that the Dawoodi Bohras who form a sub-sect of the Shia sect of Muslims is a religious denomination within the opening words of Art. 26 of the Constitution. There are a few further matters which were not in controversy on the basis of which the contentions urged in support of the petition have to be viewed. These might now be briefly stated: (1) It was the accepted tenet of the Dawoodi Bohra faith that God always had and still has a representative on earth through whom His commands are conveyed to His people. That representative was the Imam. The Dai was the representative of the Imam and conveyed God's message to His people. The powers of the Dai were approximated to those of the Imam. When the Imam came out of seclusion, the powers of the Dai would cease. The chain of intercession with the Almighty was as follows: The Dai-the Imam-the Holy Prophet-and the one God (See Per Marten J. in Advocate General of Bombay v. Yusufalli Ebrahim (1). (2) The position and status of the petitioner as the Dai-ul-Mutlaq was not contested since the same had been upheld by the Privy council the decision reported as Hasanali v. Mansoorali (2). (3) It was not in dispute that su ..... X X X X Extracts X X X X X X X X Extracts X X X X ..... ination or any section thereof shall have the right- (a) to establish and maintain institutions for religious and charitable purposes; (b) to manage its own affairs in matters of religion; (c) to own and acquire movable and immovable property; and (d) to administer such property in accordance with law. I would add that these Articles embody the principle of religious toleration that has been the characteristic feature of Indian civilization from the start of history. the instances and periods when this feature was absent being merely temporary aberrations. Besides, they serve to emphasize the secular nature of Indian Democracy which the founding fathers considered should be the very basis of the Constitution. I now proceed to the details of the provisions of the impugned Act which are stated to infringe the rights guaranteed by these two Articles. The preamble to the impugned Act recites: Whereas it has come to the notice of Government that the practice prevailing in certain communities of excommunicating its members is often followed in a manner which results in the deprivation of legitimate rights and privileges of its members; And whereas in ..... X X X X Extracts X X X X X X X X Extracts X X X X ..... ctice of excommunication offended public order, morality or health or any other part of the Constitution. Here is a religious denomination within Art.26. The Dai-ul-Mutlaq is its spiritual leader, the religious head of the denomination and in accordance with the tenets of that denomination he had invested in him the power to excommunicate dissidents. Pausing here, it is necessary to examine the rational basis of the excommunication of persons who dissent from the fundamental tenets of a faith. The identity of a religious denomination consists in the identity of its doctrines, creeds and tenets and these are intended to ensure the unity of the faith which its adherents profess and the identity of the religious views are the bonds of the union which binds them together as one community. As Smith B. said in Dill v. Watson (1) in a passage quoted by Lord Halsbury in Free Church of Scotland v. Overtoun (2) In the absence of conformity to essentials, the denomination would not be an entity cemented into solidity by harmonious uniformity of opinion, it would be a mere incongruous heap of, as it were, grains of sand, thrown together without being united, each of these intellectual and ..... X X X X Extracts X X X X X X X X Extracts X X X X ..... First I do not agree that the pleadings do not sufficiently raise the point that if excommunication was part of the practice of a religion the consequences that flow therefrom were not also part of the practice of religion . The position of the Dai as the religious head of the denomination not being disputed and his power to excommunicate also not being in dispute and it also being admitted that places of worship and burial grounds were dedicated for the use of the members of the denomination, it appears to me that the consequence of the deprivation of the use of these properties by persons excommunicated would be logical and would flow from the order of excommunication. It could not be contested that the consequence of a valid order of excommunication was that the person excommunicated would cease to be entitled to the benefits of the trusts created or founded for the denomination or to the beneficial use or enjoyment of denominational property. If the property belongs to a community and if a person by excommunication ceased to be a member of that community, it is a little difficult to see how his right to the enjoyment of the denominational property could be divorced from the ..... X X X X Extracts X X X X X X X X Extracts X X X X ..... for definite uses and which under Art. 26 (d) the religious denomination has the right to administer. From this it would follow that subject to any law grounded on public order, morality or health the limitations with which Art. 26 opens, the denomination has a right to have the property used for the purposes for which it was dedicated. So far as the present case is concerned, the management of the property and the right and the duty to ensure the proper application of that property is admitedly vested in the Dai as the religious head of the denomination. Article 26 (d) speaks of the administration of the property being in accordance with law and the learned Attorney- General suggested that a valid law could be enacted which would permit the diversion of those funds to purposes which the legislature in its wisdom thought it fit to appropriate. I feel wholly unable to accept this argument. A law which provides for or permits the diversion of the property for the use of persons who have been excluded from the denomination would not be a law contemplated by Art. 26(d). Leaving aside for the moment the right of excommunicated persons to the enjoyment of property dedicated for the use ..... X X X X Extracts X X X X X X X X Extracts X X X X ..... here, it might be mentioned that excommunication might bear two aspects: (1) as a punishment for crimes which the religious community justifies putting one out of its fold. In this connection it may be pointed out that in a theocratic State the punitive aspect of excommunication might get emphasized and might almost take the form of a general administration by religious dignitaries of ordinary civil law. But there is another aspect which is of real relevance to the point now under consideration. From this point of view excommunication might be defined as the judicial exclusion from the right and privileges of the religious community to whom the offender belongs. Here it is not so much as a punishment that excommunication is inflicted but is used as a measure of discipline for the maintenance of the integrity of the community, for in the ultimate analysis the binding force which holds together a religious community and imparts to it a unity which makes it a denomination is a common faith, common belief and a belief in a common creed, doctrines and dogma. A community has a right to insist that those who claim to be within its fold are those who believe in the essentials of its cre ..... X X X X Extracts X X X X X X X X Extracts X X X X ..... to confine excommunication as a punishment of offences which are unrelated to the practice of the religion which do not touch and concern the very existence of the faith of the denomination as such. Such an exclusion cannot be achieved except by rewriting the section. 3. The next question is whether the impugned enactment could be sustained as a measure of social welfare and reform under Art. 25 (2) (b). The learned Attorney-General is, no doubt, right in his submission that on the decision of this Court in the Mulki Temple case-(Venkataramana Devaru v. State of Mysore(1), the right guaranteed under Art. 26(b) is subject to a law protected by Art. 25(2)(b) The question then before the Court related to the validity of a law which threw open all public temples, even those belonging to a religious denomination to every community of Hindus including 'untouchable' and it was held that, notwithstanding that the exclusion of these communities from worship in such a temple was an essential part of the practice of religion of the denomination, the constitutionality of the law was saved by the second part of the provision in Art. 25(2)(b) reading: the throwing open of ..... X X X X Extracts X X X X X X X X Extracts X X X X ..... phrase occurs, it is intended to save the validity only of those laws which do not invade the basic and essential practices of religion which are guaranteed by the operative portion of Art. 25(1) for two reasons: (1) To read the saving as covering even the basic essential practices of religion, would in effect nullify and render meaningless the entire guarantee of religious freedom-a freedom not merely to profess, but to practice religion, for very few pieces of legislation for abrogating religious practices could fail to be subsumed under the caption of a provision for social welfare or reform . (2) If the phrase just quoted was intended to have such a wide operation as cutting at even the essentials guaranteed by Art. 25(1), there would have been no need for the special provision as to throwing open of Hindu religious institutions to all classes and sections of Hindus since the legislation contemplated by this provision would be par excellence one of social reform . In my view by the phrase laws providing for social welfare and reform it was not intended to enable the legislature to reform , a religion out of existence or identity. Article 25 (2)(a) having provi ..... X X X X Extracts X X X X X X X X Extracts X X X X
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